Sociology Assignment Essay Example

Sociology Assignment Essay 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Summarize the contributions of Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx to the field of sociology. Be sure to note any theoretical differences they may have had with one another.Emile Durkheim reinforced the social method and asserted that the social reality/environment can be studied objectively and empirically. Durkheim through his social facts was able to lay down the foundation for empirical sociology; not to mention his assertion of collective consciousness which is termed as culture.Max Weber is considered to be one of the most influential figures in establishing sociology as an academic discipline. He advocated the need for objectivity in the methodology of analyzing the social world which he saw as multi-layered and whose relations are interdependent. He introduced the concept of ideal types as a basis for the comparative analysis of societies.Karl Marx placed an emphasis on the economic and materialistic view of history and the structure of society. He grounded his ideas on the assertion that economic institutions are prevailing structures from which the rest of society is built on (superstructure). Weber opposed this Marxian conception of history which attempted to put into center the position of economics as the cause and mover.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Explain the similarities and difference between the three major sociological perspectives of structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Identify which perspectives use a macro-level and a micro-level of analysis.Structural functionalism centers on the structural form of the society by further analyzing the social functions that govern/cause these structures in place. Given its focus and the emphasis on the normative and social systems; it conducts itself in the macro-level of analysis.Conflict theory on the other hand sees individuals in society as promoting their own self-interest and advantage thus leading to a clash with others. It is a theory grounded o n seeing human being as competitive and it is the latter that causes social change. We could view this as following from the dialectic established by Marx. The Conflict theory operates too in the macro-level.Symbolic Interactionism values and studies the self and how the individual creates meanings in social relations. It is far more qualitative in approach and belongs in the micro-level of analysis. It takes into account the interactions and the interpretations of former mentioned by the actual participants.Structural functionalism and Conflict theory are somewhat opposing poles, perhaps due to the fact that both renders perspective at a macro-level of analysis. Durkheim is taken to be one of the influences of Structural functionalism thus it comes as no surprise that the consensus and collective agreement of functions arise. Marxian thought laid the premise from which the conflict theory operates. As such one sees society as building on function that blends and workspeople have ro les, and play the parts available in a particular society. Conflict theory disagrees with this and sees social groups and classes as opposing each other that makes a society evolve.Describe what C. Wright Mills meant by the term sociological imagination.C. Wright Mills explicated the term ‘sociological imagination’ to refer to the capacity of individuals to connect their seemingly personal lives and issues at a social level including the historical forces as influential in their personhood and experiences even if these factors are seemingly remote/alien (Mills, 1959). They connect the private with the public in such a way that one’s dilemma is viewed within the domain of society itself. A poor man sees himself as not alone but as part of a poverty stricken group and could point at social institution as the source of their plights.4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Discuss what separates sociology from common sense. Be sure to give examples of how sociological research might disp el commonly accepted views.Commonly accepted views lack empirical groundings and are often opinion driven. There is always the higher probability of resorting to hasty generalization and being flawed in one’s assumptions if we only rely on common sense. Sociology studies the social reality and the phenomena that constitute it and may affirm validly or disprove entirely common sense beliefs and notions of how the social world works.One may take for example a particular held belief regarding the media, employing a sociological approach we don’t make mere guesses and everyday assumptions that put into objective scrutiny the influences of the media and/or if our belief is correct. Another point would be the misunderstanding of western states regarding certain tribal practices, west scholars have been quick to judge in the past that these tribes are unstructured and uncivilized albeit, after sociological approaches have been furthered there is a perspective that exist viewi ng the difference of culture as an important factor and both valid world-views.5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Describe the similarities and differences between conflict theory and the feminist perspective.The Conflict Theory and Feminist perspective shares in common the view of society as having opposing groups. Although it must be noted that feminists would utilize the conflict theory into various strands that results to a variation as to what constitutes the groups in conflict. A Marxist feminist would share the most similarities with the social conflict theory in the sense that it accepts the root of gender oppression as economic and the clash of the proletariat and bourgeoisie towards a revolution is necessary in order to liberate women. In the generic sense feminist perspective may see the battle of two sexes as a conflict, but can also view the conflict as an opposition of a patriarchal system vs. the person specifically the woman.6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Define the term scientific method and t he five basic steps used in the scientific method.The scientific method is used as a form of investigation regarding a scientific (social/natural) problem in an empirical manner (Scientific method, 2007). It is a method employed by scientist in order to warrant objectivity and validity. It is most basic sense the scientific method has five steps of inquiry: 1.) identify the problem, 2.) formulating the hypothesis; 3.) observation and data gathering 4.) Testing the hypothesis and data availed and   5.) analysis and conclusion. It must be noted that the scientific method is far easier to employ in the natural sciences compared to the social sciences.7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Describe the various types of research designs and discuss the strengths and weakness of each design. Which type of research design is most commonly used by researchers, and which type of research design is the least reliable?The Survey design uses a usually random pen-paper. Question and answer method that is usually employed by sociologists. It aims as objectively gathering data that pertains to how a particular group would view something or how relations are deemed by participants. There are critiques to its capacity to be truly objective plus the issue of being cost and time inefficient. There is also the problem of complex behaviors as not being captured in surveys. The strength of survey design would be its dealing with actual conditions.The field study design constitutes direct participation and observation of the researcher within the environment and with the subjects. There are strengths in terms of external validity; there is better probability of getting natural and unconditioned responses. It is criticized in terms of internal validity as well as the tendency for subjectivity.Historical research is the least reliable in the sense that it attempts to root its approach in original data and patterns. Sociologists themselves are critical regarding utilizing this design. The experimental d esign sets various conditions artificially and the sociologist less uses it as a method due to its control over variables. The latter is preferred by psychologists.8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Discuss how a researcher might select a random sample of subjects for a research study. Which sample selection methods should researchers use and which methods should be avoided?A researcher may employ probability sampling that includes assuring that each group in the environment studied would be included in the selection in order to guarantee equal representation. Another random form of sampling is the simple form wherein a researcher would literally randomly pick a subject belonging in the social phenomena. As much as possible researchers should avoid picking subjects that are belonging to a particular group alone in order to guarantee objectivity,9.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Discuss the issue of ethics and social research. Give examples to support how research could be harmful to human life.The ethical aspect of social research is raised whenever researchers employ the use of deception in order to guarantee the objectivity of the study. There is also the problem of social research left unchecked that becomes the basis for oppressing a particular set of members with in a society. It would be harmful if for example a gay man is unknowingly subjected to social research that would to a certain extent put him in a bad light. Invasion of privacy can also be an issue.10. Describe how the internet can be used to conduct social research. Is the Internet a good or bad place to conduct social research?The internet could be a potential place for conducting random surveys, via email or through an actual site. However, there is always the danger if the participant is being truthful since it is somewhat difficult to verify his/her identity. It would be convenient but possibly dubitable in terms of results.

NAFTA effects on Mexico essays

NAFTA effects on Mexico essays The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has been implemented with the intentions to eventually open the borders between Canada, the United States, and Mexico. This paper will only deal with the effects of the trade agreement on Mexico. This paper will attempt to show that the implementation of NAFTA and its guidelines have increased flows of U.S. foreign direct investment into the country of Mexico, and subsequently improved Mexico s economy. With the United States, Mexico, and Canada signing the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the ground rules are set into place to allow Mexico to prosper from inflows of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The rules of NAFTA will protect the investments of foreign investors by locking Mexico into NAFTA regulations on direct investing (Krueger 2000). Domestic U.S. firms will be eager to invest in Mexico for a competitive advantage made possible by the NAFTA agreement and Mexicos economic conditions. This paper will discuss how NAFTA helped secure investment from the U.S. into Mexico. Additionally, why domestic U.S. firms would consider FDI into Mexico, and how U.S. FDI may have helped Mexico through its economic crisis in 1995. In order for a domestic firm to undertake foreign direct investment (FDI), they must first be able to compete effectively in their home market. Once the firm obtains a domestic competitive advantage that is strong enough to sustain and compensate for investment damages incurred by investing abroad, the firm can consider FDI (textbook). Once a firm has decided it is ready to directly invest in a foreign market, the firm must decide where to invest. The decision to invest is made by locating markets that may have a comparative advantage, or a market imperfection that would allow the investor to prosper by entering the market. For example, motivating factors of investment include: profits attainable through lower tax rates, more le...

Childcare Level 3- The questions are listed in the instructions box Coursework - 1

Childcare Level 3- The questions are listed in the instructions box - Coursework Example I will also assist them to acquire language skills in the course (Kate, 2008). In the event of handling learners in childcare, the challenge of local accents prevails since it affects their fluency in grammar. For instance, when a learner with a heavy accent raises a question, there might be grammar errors. In this case, fellow students might make fun of him or her, but it is my duty to shun that behavior and assist the learner to correct the mistake to the expected standard. This will steer more class participation and contribution during discussion hence learners will practice proper grammar and eventually emerge fluent. I would also employ illustrations by choosing one student to read from the blackboard and have the rest of the class repeat after him or her until they achieve a perfect pronunciation of the words and phrases assigned. This will no doubt put into effect positive self images (The Cleveland Clinic Foundation et al, 2009). In the learning environment, learners are usually affected by different misconceptions and errors in understanding concepts and principles of a particular field of study. The learner’s common misconceptions about capitalization features much where the sentence begins on the same line as the previous sentence. Most students are confused since the first example in capitalization the sentence started in the beginning of the line in their single ruled exercise books. The misconception is that capitalization should only be done in the beginning of a line. The solution to this misconception is to emphasize the concept of capitalization in the beginning of every new sentence (Nancy,

Is the media a tool for maintaining class and ideological domination Essay

Is the media a tool for maintaining class and ideological domination or a vital component of democracy that merely reflects the needs and views of society Discuss - Essay Example To summarize a brief history of media technology, media can be traced back to the 15th century and until Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of a mobile printing press, books were handwritten then and you could not find two similar copies of the same material. The printing press was responsible for easier mass production of mass media (Sagepub.com, 2006). Other than print media being cheaper, the invention of new means of transport made it possible for and easier for information to reach a wide audience. This invention of a printing press cannot be overlooked for it ushered in massive cultural movements in Europe and consequently all over the world. In this study, we look at the role played by media technology in the lives of the people in a societal set up, the impact it has on the societal class of the residents and its importance in the society as far as the democracy and ideological domination in the society is concerned. It should be noted that today’s society has assimilated media and technology to the levels that it is almost impossible to stay without it (Sagepub.com, 2006). Media has been proved to play a significant role in shaping socialization and shaping reality in our societies hence helping people to foster conceptions about social classes, wealth and poverty (Sagepub.com, 2006). It is true that cultures around the world consider their individual traditions, belief, norms and values very important, media has linked the people around the world regardless of the geographical distances. The social media, twitter, facebook, written media, visuals and the rest have made the world look like a global village. People can interact with each within a matter of seconds; people use social media to learn new cultures, establish and maintain relationships and stay on par with most current information around the world. Interactions and communication are therefore key factors in

Structure of an Organization Essay Example for Free

Structure of an Organization Essay Organization structure refers to the method which the organization utilizes to distribute its workers and jobs across the organization so that the tasks of the organization can be performed and the goals of the organization be achieved. Therefore, there exists a number of such structures e.g. divisional, multidivisional, matrix or functional structure. This paper evaluates the usefulness of functional and multidivisional structures. Gareth Jones (2007) defined the organizational structure as the total number of ways whereby the workforce of the organization is distributed into different tasks and their coordination then is realized among such tasks. Adner Levinthal (2001) observed that the way in which organization structure evolves is as a result of the shift in competition from innovation in product to innovation in process. This change, as the market for the products or service of the firm grows, causes the structure of the firm to grow as well and may therefore turn from functional to multidivisional. Utterback Abernathy (1975) observed that after an organization is formed it compete with other organizations in the market on the basis of its differentiation strategy. They start off on the basis of product differentiation and as they grow further, they change their focus from product alone to cost differentiation strategy as well as economies of scale. This leads them to invest more in the manufacturing process and other processes to make their product stand out as a specialized one. Tushman Anderson (1986) observed that this process may not be uniform every time. Some technological or technical discontinuity might cause this process to halt and thus start it all over again. They further observed that some companies may also focus on process innovation to stand out against competitors e.g. Toyota. However, other companies might like to continue on the basis of differentiation strategy e.g. BMW. Therefore, the lifecycle model represents a significant framework for organizations to devise their strategies and the processes they need to focus on in various competitive environments (Oster, 1994; Porter, 1980) Utterback Abernathy (1975) also defined the ways whereby the evolution process of the organization shapes up  the strategies of the firms. Gort Klepper (1982) gave effect to lifecycle model of industries by employing microeconomics supply side rationales as well as evolutionary economics. They nevertheless derived the same results. They too observed that organizations evolved first on the basis of product differentiation and on the basis of functional model and gradually shifted towards the increase in the number of firms under their auspices. When they reach at the peak they have a number of firms under their umbrella which require for a more in-depth management causing them to shift towards divisional management. This stage is called the maturity stage of the organization. This is the stage when the firm is stable from low level to the top (Utterback Suarez, 1993). Lifecycle theories all agree that organizations start on the basis of competitive strategies and as they evolve their structure experiences change. The early stage of any organization witnesses product innovation. The organizations usually focus on bringing innovation in a product that they launch in the market to distinguish it from the rest. The product is designed as per the latest needs of the consumer but existing needs are also satisfied by the product. Utterback Abernathy, 1975 They then gave the examples of the product innovation in market by organizations i.e. the new products which were launched in market to compete with existing products on the basis of innovation and meeting the latest needs of the consumers e.g. AC systems were introduced to compete with DC systems and internal combustion engines were introduced to c ompete with steam engines. Utterback Abernathy (1978) observed that in the initial stages when the product is being launched by the new organization, that organization is usually of small structure and the aim of such organization is to respond in a fast paced manner to the demands of the customers. However, when the firms get to the stage of maturity, they focus on the improvement of the process along with that of the product. They then involve the employment of latest technology and produce a dominant product e.g. AC systems came up as a dominant product compared to DC systems and internal combustion engines came up as dominant products as compared to steam engines. This transition from product innovation to innovation in process along with the product causes most of the organizations to change their structures so that new capabilities can be acquired by them. Talha (2005) described functional structure of the  organization as the one which involves the people being grouped together in a tight group to pe rform same activities or utilize same technologies and in the same department. This is therefore usually the structure of smaller organizations. This structure has its own weaknesses and strengths. Jones (2007) observed that functional structure represents that design of the organizational structure whereby the people involved possess common expertise, skills and resources. The aim of organizations structured in this manner is to enhance their effectiveness so that their goals can be achieved by them. Jones (2007) said that the main advantage of this type of structure is that people work closely together so they work in a team like manner and have the opportunity to learn from each other. They tend to be more specialized over time as well as productive. Since they possess same expertise and skills therefore they can also supervise each other conveniently. This enhances the effectiveness of the organization. Brews (2004) observed that functional structures first started to appear in 20th century when the industrial age started to emerge. The main concern for the management in that age was the efficiency of the organizations. The functional structure involved few managers which were at top while at bottom there were people. These people were organized as per the activity they used to perform. Authority was descended onto from top to bottom. However, despite the advantages enunciated above, there were also problems related to the functional structure. These were mostly two fold i.e. they involved communication and control problems. With the growth of the organizations and with the growth in its units and people, it became difficult to communicate since people and units became distant from each other in the same organization and it became difficult to measure the capability of the groups with few managers. It also gave rise to location problem i.e. it became difficult to locate every unit at one place while on the other hand if they were located at different locations it again gave rise to communication problems. (Jones, 2007) The control problem related to the management of wider number of people and units within the organization. It became difficult to control a large number of people possessing different skills as per the needs of the organization by same little number of managers. It also became difficult to gauge the problems and demands of the customers as the organizations grew as managers were busy in finding ways to coordinate with  widespread units/people while having little time to pay heed to customer queries, etc. Therefore, as organizations grew they started to get divided in various divisions with each division having its own management system. Each division then could have its own functional management system. This is what is referred to as multidivisional structure. (Jones, 2007) Such multidivisional structures arose due to different types of people working in the same organization, having had the need to establish different units in the organization to meet customer demand s and develop innovative products, increased integration and increased vertical differentiation. In such instances organizations usually gave effect to multi divisional structure to meet the management needs of the organization. The focus of the multi divisional structure is to create small divisions within the organization with each division having its own management. Robbins (2009) observed that in multi divisional structures, each unit of the organization usually has its own management which is structured on a functional pattern. He believed that multidivisional structure is viable for those organizations whereby the same product requires different parts to be assembled to form one product and that such product is sold in various markets. Jones (2007) said that at the heart of the multi divisional structure is the corporate headquarter which is entrusted with overseeing the managers of each division of the organization. A number of Fortune 500 companies e.g. Nestle, General Motors, Pepsi Co and Coca Cola have multi divisional structures. Dessler (2004) observed that the main feature of the multi divisional structure is that the organization is â€Å"departmentalized†. He said when an organization grows successfully and a number of other brands also comes under its auspices e.g. as there are a number of brands acquired by Coca Cola over time, then it has to maintain different units for different purposes. For example, the unit entrusted with the responsibility to find marketing channels in USA may lack the competency to find marketing channels in Europe or China in which instance it would be a separate unit having such responsibilities. Each region would thus have its own unit but of the same organization and each unit may have its own management structure as well. Ireland (et al. 2011) observed that functional structure is relevant and appropriate for smaller organizations and for those organizations which have just begun their operations. They gave example of Wal-Mart Stores Inc. that the store started  off with functional structure in the beginning and progressed further. Moreover, Ireland (et al. 2011) also argued that one cannot apply the same structure to each organization. It is the circumstances of each company and organization which dictate the need for the relevant structure. Thus, organizational structure represents the fashion in which organization organizes itself from top to bottom. It may be functional in the starting when the organization has just begun its operation while it may be multidivisional when the organization is huge in terms of its operations, products and services such as Fortune 500 companies. Bibliography Adner Levinthal (2001): Demand heterogeneity and technology evolution: implications for product and process innovation. Management Science 47: 611-628. Brews (2004): Exploring the Structural Effects of Internetworking. Strategic Management Journal, 25(5), 429–452 Dessler (2004): Management: Principles and Practices for Tomorrow’s Leaders. USA: Pearson Education Gort Klepper (1982): â€Å"Time Paths in the Diffusion of Product Innovations,† Economic Journal 92(3) (1982), 630-653 Ireland (et al. 2011): The Management of Strategy Concepts and Cases. USACANADA: South-Western Jones (2007): Organizational theory, design, and change (6th Ed) Prentice Hall Oster (1994): Modern Competitive Analysis. Oxford University Press: New York. Porter (1980): Competitive Advantage. Free Press: New York. Talha (2005): Organizational structure. Massachusetts, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Tushman Anderson (1986): Technological discontinuities and dominant designs: a cyclical model of technological change. Administrative Science Quarterly 35: 604-633 Utterback Abernathy (1975): A dynamic model of process and product innovation. Omega 3:639-656. Utterback Suarez (1993): Innovation, competition, and industry structure. Research Policy 22:1-21

Christian Mission to Muslims :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since September 11, the Muslim communities have been under siege by the media and the entire world. We have seen how the miss conceptions of Muslims have spread all over the media. As a Christian I begin to think that they should be treated as normal people. â€Å"When a radical fundamentalist, start a sect with ideas that differ from what the Muslim religion stands for, we begin to stereotype all the Muslims as the same. But when a Christian begins a killing spree a cross the nation, know one stereotypes all the Christians as one.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a Seventh Day Adventists Christian, I believe that we as a church body, we have to reach this people with compassion and understanding, because not all of them are evil like they are shown to be. I believe that ignorance is the root of hatred, an as Christians, we should be like Jesus, understand them, and cater to their needs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To be able to understand the Muslim mind we have to learn their background and how their religion was develop. Is hard to learn when you already have preconceived prejudices about Muslims, but that’s when we have to pray to God for wisdom, understanding, and an open mind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Islam originated in the seventh century A.D. During this time, Islamic scholars were very fluent in the areas of physics, mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, geography and medicine. Muhammed (570-632 A.D.) was the founder of Islam. He became an orphaned at the age of six, when he became a teenager he decided to join the merchants who traded goods from town to town along the caravan routes. He became a master trader for a businesswoman, then married the woman who was a widow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Muhammed was a man with a lot of spiritual insight, but he became depressed by the commercial greed and the excess of polytheism around him, he spent most of the time in seclusion and meditation. Muslims believe that while Muhammed was meditating in a cave, the archangel Gabriel appeared to him. The vision came to him first in 610 A.D. and thereafter at intervals over the next 22 years, revealing the word of Allah. Muhammed is believed to have been illiterate, for that reasons he dictated the visions to his companions who wrote them down. Then 30n years later the writings were compiled in the Koran. The Koran is the Muslims most holy book. Christian Mission to Muslims :: essays research papers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since September 11, the Muslim communities have been under siege by the media and the entire world. We have seen how the miss conceptions of Muslims have spread all over the media. As a Christian I begin to think that they should be treated as normal people. â€Å"When a radical fundamentalist, start a sect with ideas that differ from what the Muslim religion stands for, we begin to stereotype all the Muslims as the same. But when a Christian begins a killing spree a cross the nation, know one stereotypes all the Christians as one.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a Seventh Day Adventists Christian, I believe that we as a church body, we have to reach this people with compassion and understanding, because not all of them are evil like they are shown to be. I believe that ignorance is the root of hatred, an as Christians, we should be like Jesus, understand them, and cater to their needs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To be able to understand the Muslim mind we have to learn their background and how their religion was develop. Is hard to learn when you already have preconceived prejudices about Muslims, but that’s when we have to pray to God for wisdom, understanding, and an open mind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Islam originated in the seventh century A.D. During this time, Islamic scholars were very fluent in the areas of physics, mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, geography and medicine. Muhammed (570-632 A.D.) was the founder of Islam. He became an orphaned at the age of six, when he became a teenager he decided to join the merchants who traded goods from town to town along the caravan routes. He became a master trader for a businesswoman, then married the woman who was a widow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Muhammed was a man with a lot of spiritual insight, but he became depressed by the commercial greed and the excess of polytheism around him, he spent most of the time in seclusion and meditation. Muslims believe that while Muhammed was meditating in a cave, the archangel Gabriel appeared to him. The vision came to him first in 610 A.D. and thereafter at intervals over the next 22 years, revealing the word of Allah. Muhammed is believed to have been illiterate, for that reasons he dictated the visions to his companions who wrote them down. Then 30n years later the writings were compiled in the Koran. The Koran is the Muslims most holy book.

Radiotherapy Treatment Cancerous Diseases Clinac Health And Social Care Essay

Radiotherapy intervention has a important and critical axial rotation in the intervention of cancerous diseases. Different types of techniques were used for this intent. In past, conventional radiation therapy technique was used. But it did non efficaciously used for intervention of tumours located in sensitive countries of homo organic structure which have limited tolerance for radiation doses [ 1 ] .Modern twenty-four hours radiation therapy consists of 3D conformal radiation therapy and strength modulated radiation therapy ( IMRT ) . After the development of oculus position show of beam, 3D conformal radiation therapy was used for clinical intent in 1978. [ 2 ] ( Reinstein et Al. ( 28 ) and McShan et Al ) In 3D conformal radiation therapy, present the high doses to aim volume while determining the beam to minimise the dosage to the environing normal tissues. To avoid the inauspicious effects of radiations during intervention, protect the normal tissues by determining the intervention Fieldss with lead blocks [ 12 ] . In this procedure, 3D image computing machine imaging and magnetic resonance imagination ( CT, MRI ) are used to turn up the tumours and other septic variety meats accurately [ 13 ] . In this technique we could non used more than four intervention field programs before the development of MLCs in CLINAC [ 14 ] . After the development of MLCs, it is possible to protect the normal tissues by determining the intervention Fieldss to present the high doses to the mark volume accurately. In some instances like prostate, caput and cervix, it is impossible to salvage normal tissues during the bringing of high energy dosage to the tumour even by utilizing the 3D conformal technique [ 15 ] . For this intent a new technique Intensity modulated radiation therapy was introduced. In this technique, a patient is treated from a figure of different waies by utilizing a non unvarying intense beam. In IMRT technique, it is possible to present the high doses to aim volume while determining the beam to minimise the dosage to the environing normal tissues. It is achieved by utilizing compensators, cuneuss or MLCs. [ 16 ] IMRT techniques are dearly-won and significantly complex than 3D CRT. In radiation therapy intervention, radiations are used for malignant neoplastic disease intervention by avoiding the healthy tissues. These radiations destroy malignant neoplastic disease infected cells wholly. Generally radiation beams of X raies, gamma beams, and negatrons are used during intervention of malignant neoplastic disease diseases. In radiation therapy, assorted types of machines are used for the intervention of malignant neoplastic disease tumours by utilizing high energy photons and negatron beams [ 1 ] . In early 1900 ‘s, ace electromotive force and low energy X raies machines were used for malignant neoplastic disease intervention. But these machines could non handle the deep sitting tumours due to their hapless deepness dose distribution [ 2 ] . In 1950s, with the development of first practical mega-voltage machine Co-60, it was possible to handle deep seated tumours with photons. As the beginning of radiation in Co-60 unit has no point beginning, so its dimensions produce the geometric and transmittal penumbra. [ 3 ] Due to this penumbra, the dose distribution is non unvarying at the field border. Therefore Co-60 unit does non supply the ideal deepness dose distribution at the field edges. After the development of magnetron or klystrons, microwave tubings, charge atoms were accelerated by high frequence electromagnetic moving ridges through these tubings. For this intent foremost additive gas pedal were developed in 1950s. [ 4 ] In 1953 first medical linear gas pedal was used in Hammersmith Hospital in London [ 5 ] . At the beginning, accurate bringing of radiations to septic cells of a patient was major job. To decide this job, British Institute of Radiology ( BIR ) compiled a cardinal axis dose distribution informations, published in British diary of Radiology ( BJR ) supplement 5 in 1953. [ 1 ] Clinical additive gas pedal ( CLINAC ) is a megavoltage machine with less geometric and transmittal penumbra, used for malignant neoplastic disease intervention [ 6 ] . Clinical additive gas pedal has quickly improved its design and engineering with the transition of clip. A modern twenty-four hours computing machine controlled clinical additive gas pedals with double energy and multileaf collimators ( MLC ) technique provides fast, more accurate and precise dose bringing to the malignant neoplastic disease infected cells by avoiding the normal environing tissues [ 7 ] . It provides both negatrons and X-ray photons of assorted mega electromotive force energy scopes. In modern twenty-four hours additive gas pedal, high energy negatrons are produced which are used for superficial tumours. These negatrons are besides used to bring forth high energy x beams which are used for deep sitting tumours [ 8 ] .The Role of Medical PhysicistsThe medical physicists must carry through following dut ies before choice of CLINAC To develop demands, specifications and recommendations for the choice of the CLINAC To program and supervise the building installations including screening design to house the CLINAC. To supervise all the installing processs To execute credence testing of the machine To execute commissioning of the machine for clinical intent To come in all get informations during commissioning into intervention planning system To set up new processs for the effectual and safety usage of gas pedal To set up processs for quality confidence and quality control on the day-to-day footingAcceptance TestAfter the installing of radiation therapy machine, for credence trial a series of undertakings and measurings must execute to verify the specifications and safety criterion. In credence trial, physicists must verify three chief processs Safety cheques Mechanical cheques Dosimetry measurings In safety cheques, the medical physicists must verify that all interlocks and warning visible radiations are proper operation. In mechanical cheques, it must guarantee that all the parts of intervention unit including intervention tabular array are accurately working. In dosimetry measurings, specifications and uniformity of photon and negatron beams verified.CommissioningAfter complete and satisfactory credence trial, it is non possible to utilize clinical additive gas pedal ( CLINAC ) straight for intervention intent. All informations acquired during the credence proving are non sufficient to committee a radiation therapy machine in the intervention planning system. Commission is the procedure of fixing the processs, protocols, instructions and dosimetry informations for clinical prospectus. AAMP codification of pattern for gas pedals ( TG 45 ) provides elaborate information about all these commissioning processs and besides discuses the demands for specific beam informations. All measurings of commissioning should be made by to the full trained and qualified medical physicist. During commissioning, following undertakings must be achieved. Acquire all informations for external beam radiation therapy for intervention intent. Form all informations into a dosimetry informations book Enter all information into the intervention planning system ( TPS ) Develop all intervention planning processs Verifying the truth of all processs Establish quality control processs Training all individuals Machine-specific beam informations for commissioning is extremely dependent on the dose calculation- algorithms used in the intervention planning system. The model-base dose calculation-algorithms ( convolution/superposition ) require much less measured informations than correction-based algorithms ( tantamount TAR, etc. ) . Irrespective of the dose calculation-algorithm, it is necessary to hold a minimal dataset for several energy scopes of photon and negatron beams that includes Percentage deepness dosage ( unfastened, cuneus ) for several field sizes Off axis unfastened and wedge beam profiles ( cross plane, In plane ) for all field sizes End product factors Wedge factors ( difficult and practical ) Calibrated dose rate Effective beginning to come up distance ( merely for negatron ) It is ensured that all beam and dosimetry informations acquired during commissioning of CLINAC must compare with all the specifications and published informations of the same available theoretical account. It is strongly recommended that all the processs of commissioning must be carefully executed and planned because all the get beam informations is used for patient ‘s intervention. Therefore, for completion of all undertakings and measurings in commissioning, an appropriate clip tabular array must be scheduled. All the undertakings achieved during commissioning procedure of CLINAC can be estimated to necessitate 1 to 2 hebdomad per energy.Percentage Depth DosePercentage deepness dosage is defined as the ratio of absorbed dosage at any depth D on the cardinal axis of beam to absorbed dosage at Dmax multiplied by 100. ( F. Khan ) Percentage deepness dosage It depends upon a figure of parametric quantities beam energy, beam collimation, deepness D, field size degree Fahrenheit, and beginning to come up distance ( SSD ) .Beam ProfileThe uniformity of off axis deepness dosage normally called beam profile is measured by scanning the H2O apparition for assorted deepnesss both beam axes. Following parametric quantities are measured to look into the uniformity of the beam profiles.Two-dimensionalityTwo-dimensionality can be specified as a maximal allowable per centum fluctuation from the norm dose across the cardinal 80 % of the full breadth at half maximal ( FWHM ) of the profile in a plane transverse to the beam axis. That is, the two-dimensionality F is given by Two-dimensionality must be less than 3 % for mention field size 10 ten 10 centimeter measurings in H2O apparition at deepness of 10 centimeter and beginning to surface ( SSD ) .SymmetrySymmetry is frequently defined as a maximal allowable per centum divergence of the â€Å" left-side † dosage from the â€Å" right-side † dosage of a beam profile frequently at 80 % of the FWHM points. Symmetry must be less than 2 % for mention field size 10 ten 10 centimeter measurings at deepness of Dmax and 10 centimeter in H2O apparition at SSD 100 centimeter.Physical PenumbraThe penumbra, by and large defined as the sidelong distance between the 80 % and 20 % of upper limit dose points on one side of a beam profile, must be within specification. It depends upon deepness, SSD, beginning size, beginning to collimator distance and beam energy. ( Ervin page196 ) Since commissioning beam informations are treated as a mention and finally used by intervention be aftering systems, it is vitally of import that the collected informations are of the highest quality to avoid dosi metric and patient intervention mistakes that may later take to a hapless radiation result.Output FactorEnd product is defined as the ratio of the end product in air for a given field to that for a mention field. It is the merchandise of collimator spread factor and apparition spread factor. It depends upon field size. It increases with field size. It is measured for each field size at a fixed deepness Dmax.Wedge FactorThe cuneus factor is defined as the ratio of dosage at a specified deepness normally Dmax on the cardinal axis with the cuneus in the beam to the dosage under the same status without the cuneus. Wedge factor alterations at deepness as a map of cuneus angle fading coefficient and field size. It does non depend on deepness. Wedge factor for practical cuneus is one because the figure of monitor units entered at control console, are delivered at the cardinal axis.